Transnational Higher Education in the Shifting Geopolitical Landscape: A Scoping Review of Confucius Institutes Worldwide

Abstract

Since the inception of the inaugural Confucius Institute (CI) in Seoul in 2004, China has swiftly broadened this project as a means of transnational higher education to advance the global dissemination of Chinese language and culture. This swift growth has drawn increasing scrutiny, with questions of academic freedom, transparency, and political interference—especially in host countries—at the centre of debate over the institutes’ future. To systematically examine how Cis function across different geopolitical contexts, this study conducted a scoping review of 104 peer-reviewed articles published between 2004 and 2021. The findings reveal three clear trends: (1) research clusters in North America, Europe, and East Asia mirror both the rapid growth of Confucius Institutes and the intensity of the debates surrounding them; (2) scholarly attention has shifted: early studies emphasized educational partnerships and cultural exchange, whereas recent work zeroes in on academic freedom, national security, and geopolitical rivalry; (3) soft power has emerged as the dominant theoretical lens, framing Chinese educational outreach as a strategic endeavour and situating host-country responses within the broader dynamics of international relations. This study contributes valuable insights for scholars, educators, and policymakers navigating the increasingly contentious landscape of cross-border academic collaboration.